A Creationist Assessment of Sexual Databases

Paul Nethercott

 

www.CreationismOnline.com

September 2016

 

Evolutionists claim that sexual reproduction evolved from asexual reproduction into the modern array of types we see in complex multi cellular organisms we see today. If this was true we would expect so see that animals of a common descent have the same types and the distribution of techniques in nature lines up with the evolutionary tree of life. As far as identical types of very complex sexual processes arising independently would be impossible. Imagine two teams of engineers independently designing two identical Chevrolet Corvettes or two identical Microsoft Windows. The chances are far too remote to happen in even in trillions of years.

 

Creationists have long pointed out (Harrub 2004a, 2004b) that the origin of sex like the origin of other complex organs is impossible. One way that has not been demonstrated before by creationist literature is the problem of immense homoplasy. Numerous phyla/orders with no evolutionary relationship have identical or nearly identical methods. The probability of so many arising independently is just zero. Another problem not listed by creationist literature is the huge array of methods. The sixty nine plant families with have not two (Tree Of Sex, Plants, 2015, Column N) but forty sexes!

 

Diversity of Sexual Determination Systems

Leo Beukeboom’s book (2014a) The Evolution of Sex Determination has an online database (2014b) with nineteen sexual features in nine kingdoms and 75 phyla. Half of the nineteen features are the opposite of the other half which rules out common ancestry for all of them. There are 974 overlaps in the systems of various phyla and kingdoms. The probability of them arising independently dozens of times by chance is zero

 

Table 1. Nineteen sexual systems nine phyla.

Kingdoms: 1. Archaeplastida, 2. Excavata, 3. Animals, 4. Fungi, 5. Stramenopiles, 6. Alveolates, 7. Rhizaria, 8. Hacrobia, 9. Amoebozoa. Systems: A. haplontic. B. haplo-diplontic. C. Diplontic. D. subdiplontic cycles (very limited and non-independent gametophyte). E. Haplodiplointic but with prolonged dikaryotic or heterokaryotic phase (zygotic meiosis). F. Isogamous. G. Anisogamous. H. Oogamous. I. Somatogamy. J. Gamontogamy. K. haploid stage. L. diploid stage. M. genotypic. N. Epigenetic. O. Unisexual: one single individual gametophyte (under haploid SD) or sprophyte (under diploid SD) produces either male or female gametes, but not both. P. Cosexual: the same individual gametophyte (under haploid SD) or sporophyte (under diploid SD) can produce both male and female gametes. Q. homothallic; mating can occur between genetically identical gametes originating from the same meiotic spore, resulting in a completely homozygous zygote.  R. heterothallic; mating is prevented between genetically identical gametes originating from the same meiotic spore. (Beukeboom, 2014b)

 

 

 

 

 

Table 2. Sexual systems that contain more than one phyla

System	Kingdom	Phyla	System	Kingdom	Phyla
AFGHKMNOPQR	Archaeplastida	Chlorophyceae	CHLMNOP	Animals	Arthropoda
	Stramenopiles	Xanthophyceae		Animals	Echinodermata
AFKMNQR	Archaeplastida	Zygnematophyceae		Animals	Chordata
	Amoebozoa	Mycetozoa		Stramenopiles	Phaeophyceae
AFKMR	Archaeplastida	Prasinophyceae	CHLMO	Animals	Sipuncula
	Archaeplastida	Ulvophyceae		Animals	Pogonophora
	Stramenopiles	Synurophyceae		Animals	Rotifers
	Stramenopiles	Chrysophyceae		Animals	Onychophora
AHKMNOPQR	Archaeplastida	Chlorophyceae		Animals	Arthropoda
	Archaeplastida	Coleochaetophyceae		Animals	Echinodermata
	Archaeplastida	Charophyceae		Animals	Chordata
BFKM	Rhizaria	Cercozoa	CHLNO	Animals	Echiura
	Hacrobia	Haptophyta		Animals	Chordata
BFKMR	Archaeplastida	Ulvophyceae		Stramenopiles	Diatoms
	Fungi	Dikarya	CHLNP	Animals	Porifera
	Stramenopiles	Phaeophyceae		Animals	Ctenaria
	Amoebozoa	Mycetozoa		Animals	Annelida
BGKMOR	Archaeplastida	Florideophyceae		Animals	Mollusca
	Archaeplastida	Ulvophyceae		Animals	Entoprocta
	Stramenopiles	Phaeophyceae		Animals	Bryozoa
BHKMNOPQR	Archaeplastida	Hepatophyta		Animals	Gnathostomulida
	Archaeplastida	Bryophyta		Animals	Gastrotricha
	Stramenopiles	Phaeophyceae		Animals	Platyhelminthes
BHKNPQ	Archaeplastida	Anthocerophyta		Animals	Arthropoda
	Archaeplastida	Lycophyta		Animals	Chaetognatha
	Stramenopiles	Phaeophyceae		Animals	Chordata
BHLNPR	Archaeplastida	Lycophyta		Stramenopiles	Oomycota
	Archaeplastida	Monilophyta	CHLO	Animals	Placozoa
CHLMNO	Animals	Arthropoda		Animals	Mollusca
	Animals	Chordata		Animals	Brachiopods
CHLMNOP	Animals	Cnidaria		Animals	Nematomorpha
	Animals	Annelida		Animals	Priapulida
	Animals	Mollusca		Animals	Loricifera
	Animals	Phoronida		Animals	Kinorhyncha
	Animals	Nemertea		Animals	Hemichordata
	Animals	Platyhelminthes	DHLMNOPR	Archaeplastida	Gymnosperms
	Animals	Tardigrade		Archaeplastida	Angiosperms
	Animals	Nematode

(Beukeboom, 2014b)

 

Another problem for evolutionists [Tables 2 and 3] is that you cannot arrange them in a phylogenetic tree.

 

Table 3. Phyla that contain more than one sexual system

(Beukeboom, 2014b)

 

The Tree of Sex consortium (Bachtrog, 2014, 2015, Ashman 2014) has an online database of 40,000 species in three phyla (plants, insects and vertebrates). If we look at table 4 we can see that there are nine main reproductive systems in fourteen

major groups of organisms. Many reproductive systems overlap different totally unrelated groups. Hermaphrodite procreation exists in all three phyla. Considering the complexity of DNA the chances of identical systems arising independently is zero.

 

 

Table 4. Diversity of sex determination systems

A. XO, XY, complex XY, B. ZO, ZW, complex ZW, C. Homomorphic, D. Hermaphrodites, E. ESD, F. Haplo-Diploids, G. Paternal Genome Elimination, H. Monoecy, I. Dioecy. (Bachtrog, 2014)

 

In table five we can see three more phyla (nematodes, molluscs and annelids) and four more sexual systems. The XY system is present in five phyla and the XO and ZW systems are present in four phyla.

 

Table 5. Thirteen sexual systems ten phyla/sub phyla

A. complex XO, B. complex XY, C. complex XY | homomorphic, D. complex ZW, E. homomorphic, F. XO, G. XO | homomorphic, H. XO|XY, I. XY, J. XY | homomorphic, K. ZO, L. ZW, M. WO.

(Tree of sex, 2015, Plants, Vertebrates, Invertebrates, Avise, 2004, Thiriot, 2003, Hodgkin, 1986, Tosuji, 2004)

 

 

Arthropod Sexuality

An arthropod is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton (external skeleton), a segmented body, and jointed appendages (paired appendages). Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda, which includes the insects, arachnids, myriapods, and crustaceans. Estimates of the number of arthropod species vary between 1,170,000 and 5 to 10 million and account for over 80% of all known living animal species.

 

If we add two more factors to table 4 (number of female and male chromosomes) we get a three level (System-Female-Male) view of molecular homology (Table 6). Invertebrates have 13 sexual systems, males have 1 to 381 chromosomes (380) and females have 2 to 192 chromosomes (190) giving 938,600 (= 13 x 380 x 190) combinations. Vertebrates have 8 sexual systems, males have 1 to 475 chromosomes (474) and females have 1 to 184 chromosomes (183) giving 69 thousand combinations. The chances of have one species in both phyla with identical systems is one in 65 billion. If we look in table 7 we can see that some families overlap between two (probability = 4.31 x 10^-21) to ten systems (probability = 1.49 x 10^-108).

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 6. Three level system of sexuality

(Tree Of Sex, Vertebrates, Invertebrates, 2015)

 

Table 7. Identical [Three Level] sex determination systems in vertebrates and insects

Insects: 1. Coleoptera, 2. Dermaptera, 3. Diptera, 4. Ephemeroptera, 5. Grylloblattodea, 6. Mantodea, 7. Megaloptera, 8. Neuroptera, 9. Odonata, 10. Orthoptera, 11. Phasmatodea, 12. Psocoptera, 13. Raphidioptera, 14. Siphonaptera, 15. Zoraptera. Vertebrates: A. Anura, B. Carnivores, C. Cetartiodactyla, D. Chiroptera, E. Cyprinodontiformes, F. Diprotodonts, G. Gymnotiformes, H. Insectivora, I. Lagomorpha, J. Marsupials, K. Perciformes, L. Perissodactyla, M. Pleuronectiformes, N. Primates, O. Rodents, P. Squamata, Q. Tubulidentata. Systems: a. Complex XY-16-15, b. XY-16-16, c. XY-18-18, d. XY-22-22, e. XY-24-24, f. XY-26-26, g. XY-28-28, h. XY-30-30, i. XY-32-32, j. XY-34-34, k. XY-36-36, l. XY-38-38, m. XY-40-40. (Tree Of Sex, Vertebrates, Invertebrates, 2015)

 

Table 8. Number of species that overlap and probability of overlaps (10^-x)

(Tree of Sex, Invertebrates, 2015)

 

 

In table 8 we can see that the probability of so many overlapping systems is between 10^-11 and 10^-1633. The systems [A-C-D] are the a. chromosome type – b. number of female chromosomes – c. number of male chromosomes. We can add a fourth criteria [the genotype] which makes the probability of overlap between one species in each phyla (vertebrates and insects) one in 525 billion.

To give you an idea there are 525 billion seconds in 16,641 years.

 

Table 9. Four level system of sexuality

(Tree of Sex, Invertebrates, 2015)

 

The systems [A-B-C-D] are the chromosome type – genotype - number of female chromosomes – number of male chromosomes. In table 10 some systems like XY-M-20-20 exist in 783 species (778 insects and 5 vertebrates). The probability of this overlap in two different phyla is 525,135,436,800⁷⁸³ = 10⁹¹⁷⁶. Not only that, many species in the same phyla but different sub phyla, orders and families overlap with identical systems. Vertebrates have overlap in four sub phyla (Amphibians, Fish, Mammals and Reptiles) which have 43 orders and 177 families. 4 x 43 x 177 = 30,444. For instance the system XY-M-50-50 (Book: Invertebrates, Sheet: 4_Systems_Ver) exists in 23 species, 3 sub phyla, 12 orders and 16 families.

 

Table 10. Identical [Four Level] sex determination systems in vertebrates and insects

(Tree of Sex, Invertebrates, 2015)

 

If we look in table 11 below we can see that insect order A (Blattodea) and B (Coleoptera) have 20 overlapping sexual systems. There are 84 times that sexual systems in A (Blattodea) that overlap 11 of the other 26 insect orders.

 

 

Table 11. Fifty seven overlapping systems in twenty six insect orders

Column Y: Number of times identical systems in one insect order exist other insect orders. Row and column W: The twenty six insect orders (A-Z). A. Blattodea, B. Coleoptera, C. Collembola, D. Dermaptera, E. Diptera, F. Embiidina, G. Ephemeroptera, H. Grylloblattodea, I. Isoptera, J. Lepidoptera, K. Mantodea, L. Mecoptera, M. Megaloptera, N. Neuroptera, O. Odonata, P. Orthoptera, Q. Phasmatodea, R. Phthiraptera, S. Plecoptera, T. Protura, U. Psocoptera, V. Raphidioptera, W. Siphonaptera, X. Strepsiptera, Y. Trichoptera, Z. Zoraptera. Row Q: The number of orders that overlap another order with identical systems. (Tree of sex, Invertebrates, 2015)

 

Invertebrates have 13 sexual systems. If we arrange their distribution (Tables 12-14) into various orders we see that the XY and XO system exists in 20 arthropod orders. The probability of the same system arising independently so many times is zero.

Trying to arrange their distribution into a phylogenetic tree is impossible.

 

 

Table 12. Number of species and orders per system (blue: non insects)

(CXY: complex XY, CXO: complex XO, CZW: complex ZW, HMP: homomorphic)

(Tree Of Sex, Invertebrates, 2015)

 

 

Table 13. Number of systems and species per order

(CXY: complex XY, CXO: complex XO, CZW: complex ZW, HMP: homomorphic)

 (Tree Of Sex, Invertebrates, 2015)

 

 

Table 14. Number of systems and species per order

(A. CXO, B. CXY, C. CXY|HMP, D. CZW, E. HMP, F. XO,

G. XO|HMP, H. XO|XY, I. XY, J. XY|HMP, K. ZO, L. ZW)

(Tree Of Sex, Invertebrates, 2015)

 

 

Table 15. Mating arrangements in arthropods

Number of species in each column. G: Gonochorous, P: Parthenogenetic, H: Hermaphrodite

(Tree Of Sex, Invertebrates, 2015)

 

Arthropod Chromosome Homoplasy

Out of the eight reproduction mechanisms used in animals, six (arrhenotoky, cyclic parthenogenesis, gynogenesis, hybridogenesis, parent-specific allele expression and paternal genome elimination) are used by arthropods and have arisen independently (Normark, 2014) in four other phyla: Loricifera, Nematodes, Rotifers and Vertebrata. Parthenogenesis as well as being used by arthropods has arisen independently in thirteen other phyla: Annelids, Jelly Fish, Echinodermata, Gastrotrich, Molluscs, Nematodes, Nematomorpha, Onychophora, Platyhelminthes, Rotifers, Sipuncula, Tardigrade and Vertebrates (Normark, 2014). Satoko lists (Satoko, 2010, P. 72-81) 305 species within arthropods which have independently evolved parthenogenesis:

 

Insects                   14 Orders               77 Families           265 species

Crustaceans          6 Orders                 14 Families           19 species

Arachnids              3 Orders                 6 Families              20 species

Pycnogonida        1 Order                   1 Families              1 species

 

If we look at all the insect families listed in the tree of sex database how many sexual systems are there per family? This tells us how many arose independently per family. We then add up the family totals for each order and see that the twelve systems listed in tables 12-14 arose independently at least 365 times. Some orders have 95 independent evolutions. Some systems have arisen independently 137 times:

 

                                                                A             7              E             14           I                 137

                                                                B             32           F             124         J                 11

                                                                C             3              G             3              K                12

                                                                D             7              H             4              L                11

 

                       

 

                        Table 16. 365 Independent origins of twelve sexual systems in thirty insect phyla

(Tree Of Sex, Invertebrates, 2015)

 

Table 17. Fifty seven [three level] overlapping genome arrangements in 26 insect orders

(Tree Of Sex, Invertebrates, 2015)

 

It would be extremely difficult to decide which crustacean is the ancestor of terrestrial arthropods. If we assume that there is one ancestor (with one DNA system) for insects then twelve of the thirteen systems arose independently in other groups (Centipedes, Millipedes, Mites, Spiders and Ticks). If we look at table 5 we see that all five vertebrate orders have seven identical systems so the parallel evolution is endless.

 

What is the probability that identical systems (E.g. XO-22-21 is in ten families) would arise in several different families or orders independently? Since insects would have one ancestor with one DNA system any others would arise by parallel evolution. Out of 191 systems that actually exist Coleoptera has 47 different systems which it shares with other families.

 

 

Table 18. Overlapping orders in arthropod genome systems

(Tree Of Sex, Invertebrates, 2015)

 

Table 19. Homoplasy probability in arthropod genome sub-systems

(Tree Of Sex, Invertebrates, 2015, Column K)

 

To give you an idea of the complexity of arranging insect DNA: The Oriental fruit fly (Dacus dorsalis) has 18,857 proteins (Uniprot, 2015, Dacus) which equals 9 megabytes of data. Drosophila ananassae (Fruit fly) has 19,806 proteins (Uniprot, 2015, Drosophila) which equals 13 megabytes of DNA data.

 

Vertebrates Sexuality

Vertebrates comprise all species of animals within the subphylum Vertebrata (chordates with backbones). Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the phylum Chordata, with currently about 64,000 species described. According to evolutionary theory fish evolved into amphibians which evolved into reptiles. Reptiles then evolved into birds and mammals. With 33,100 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any other group of vertebrates.

 

 

Table 20. Number of species per system in vertebrate orders

CXY: Complex XY, CZX: Complex ZW, HMP: Homomorphic. (Tree Of Sex, Vertebrates, 2015)

 

We can see in table 20 that the CZW system disappears in amphibians and reappears in reptiles. The XO system bypasses amphibians and reptiles and reappears in mammals. The HMP system is passed onto reptiles but does not exist in mammals or birds. Birds have at least two ancestors CZW and ZW. Mammals have three (CXY, XY and XO) ancestors. Reptiles have five (CZW, CXY, HMP, XY and ZW). Amphibians have four (CXY, HMP, ZY, WO and ZW).

 We can see in table 20 that the CZW system disappears in amphibians and reappears in reptiles. The XO system bypasses amphibians and reptiles and reappears in mammals. The HMP system is passed onto reptiles but does not exist in mammals or birds. Birds have at least two ancestors CZW and ZW. Mammals have three (CXY, XY and XO) ancestors. Reptiles have five (CZW, CXY, HMP, XY and ZW). Amphibians have four (CXY, HMP, ZY and ZW).

 If we look in table 21 we can see that the seven different sexual systems have arisen independently in fish 137 times in 26 orders and 137 families. Highlighted yellow are in the shark/ray sub phyla. Eighteen orders (112 families) have between two to six systems. Five orders (Cypriniformes, Cyprinodontiformes, Gasterosteiformes, Perciformes, Siluriformes) have four of the five systems found in amphibians. If only one fish species were the ancestor of amphibians they should all have only one genetic system. The root ancestor could only have one system in its DNA. The overlapping of systems is so complex it would be impossible to determine how fish evolved from their original ancestor.

 

 

 

Table 21. Sexual systems in 26 fish orders

 

 

 

The number of known amphibian species is approximately 7,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. If we look in table 22 we can see that the five different sexual systems have arisen independently in amphibians 33 times in 2 orders and 33 families. 

 

 

Table 22. Fish families with more than one sexual system

Order	Family	CXY	CZW	HMP	XO	XY	ZO	ZW	Systems
Anguilliformes	Ophichthidae	1						1	2
Aulopiformes	Synodontidae		1					1	2
Beloniformes	Adrianichthyidae			1		1		1	3
Characiformes	Parodontidae		1	1					2
	Erythrinidae	1		1		1			3
Clupeiformes	Clupeidae	1		1					2
Cypriniformes	Cobitidae	1		1					2
	Cyprinidae			1		1		1	3
Cyprinodontiformes	Cyprinodontidae	1		1					2
	Nothobranchiidae	1				1			2
	Aplocheilidae			1				1	2
	Goodeidae	1		1				1	3
	Poeciliidae			1		1		1	3
Gasterosteiformes	Gasterosteidae	1		1		1		1	4
Gymnotiformes	Gymnotidae	1		1					2
	Sternopygidae	1				1			2
Myctophiformes	Myctophidae			1	1				2
Perciformes	Callionymidae	1		1					2
	Lutjanidae	1		1					2
	Monodactylidae	1		1					2
	Percidae	1		1					2
	Blenniidae	1				1			2
	Centrarchidae			1	1				2
	Cichlidae			1		1			2
	Eleotridae	1		1		1			3
	Belontiidae				1		1	1	3
	Gobiidae	1		1	1	1			4
Pleuronectiformes	Cynoglossidae				1		1		2
Salmoniformes	Salmonidae	1		1		1			3
Siluriformes	Loricariidae	1	1	1	1	1		1	6
Synbranchiformes	Mastacembelidae			1		1			2
Tetraodontiformes	Tetraodontidae	1		1					2
	Systems	20	3	25	6	14	2	10	80

Coloured families have identical systems.

 

 

Reptiles are tetrapod animals in the class Reptilia, comprising today's turtles, crocodilians, snakes, lizards and tuatara. Several living subgroups are recognized: Chelonia (Turtles, terrapins and tortoises), approximately 400 species; Sphenodontia (tuatara from New Zealand), 1 species; Squamata (lizards, snakes, and worm lizards), over 9,600 species and Crocodilia (crocodiles, gavials, caimans, and alligators), 25 species. If we look in table 23 we can see that the five different sexual systems have arisen independently in reptiles 32 times in 2 orders and 32 families.  Both orders (32 families) have between three to five systems.

 

Table 23. Amphibian sexual systems

Table 24. Amphibian sexual systems

Coloured families have identical systems.

 

 

Table 25. Reptilian sexual systems

Coloured families have identical systems.

 

 

 

According to Mammal Species of the World, 5,416 species were known in 2006. These were grouped in 1,229 genera, 153 families and 29 orders. If we look in table 26 we can see that the three different sexual systems have arisen independently in mammals 104 times in 20 orders and 104 families. Six orders (71 families) have between two to three systems.

 

 

Table 26. Mammalian sexual systems

 

 

 

If we look in table 27 we can see that the two different sexual systems have arisen in birds.

 

 

Table 27. Bird sexual systems

 

Plant Sexuality

Plants, also called green plants, are multicellular eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. They form an unranked clade Viridiplantae (Latin for green plants) that includes the flowering plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae. Precise numbers are difficult to determine, but as of 2010, there are thought to be 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, some 260–290 thousand, are seed plants. According to Dellaporta (Dellaporta, 1993) there are at least twenty four sexes in flowering plants. If we look at the eleven (A-K) sub systems (Tree of Sex, Plants, 2015, column N) that plant sexuality is built on.

 

Table 28. Ten identical sexual systems in coral and plants

(Tree Of Sex, Plants, 2015, Guest, 2012, Combosch, 2013)

 

 

 

 

Table 29. Forty sexual groups in 31 plant families

(Tree Of Sex, Plants, 2015) Androdioecy A, Andromonoecy B, Apomictic C, Dioecy D, Gynodioecy E, Gynomonoecy F, Hermaphrodite G, Monoecy H, Other I, Polygamodioecy J, Polygamomonoecy K.

 

 

Conclusion

The infinite complexity and overlapping homoplasy (Sarfati, 2011) in sex defies the evolutionary logic and demands a supernatural creator. In table 23 we can see that 29 phyla can have between 1 to five of the seven known systems.

 

 

Table 23. Seven sexual systems in 29 phyla

H. Hermaphrodites, SH. Simultaneous Hermaphrodites, D. Dioecious,

P. Protandric, V. Varied Sexuality, SQ. Sequential Hermaphrodites,

R. Parthenogenetic. (Leonard, 2013)

 

Online Appendix

 

File Type	Download Files
Microsoft Excel	Beukeboom_Eukaryota.xlsm
Microsoft Excel	Invertebrates.xlsm
Microsoft Excel	Invertebrates_Systems.xlsm
Microsoft Excel	Plants.xlsm
Microsoft Excel	Sex.xlsm
Microsoft Excel	Sex_Plants.xlsm
Microsoft Excel	SexMethods.xlsm
Microsoft Excel	Sexual.xlsm
Microsoft Excel	Vertebrate_Phylogeny.xlsm
Microsoft Excel	Vertebrates.xlsm
Adobe Acrobat	Sex.pdf

 

 

References

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 Avise, John C., 2004, Proceedings Royal Society London B, 271:641–646.

 Bachtrog, Doris, 2014, Why So Many Ways of Doing It?, Plos Biology 12(7): e1001899

 Bachtrog, Doris, 2015, Tree Of Sex, http://treeofsex.org

 Beukeboom, Leo, 2014a, The Evolution of Sex Determination, Oxford University Press.

 Beukeboom, Leo, 2014b, Eukaryota sexual systems overview, http://global.oup.com/booksites/content/9780199657148/

http://global.oup.com/booksites/fdscontent/booksites/uk/booksites/content/9780199657148/Eukaryota.xls

 Combosch, David J., 2013, Ecology and Evolution 3(10): 3379–3387

 Dellaporta, Stephen, 1993, Sex Determination in Flowering Plants, The Plant Cell, 5:1241-1251

 Guest, J. R., 2012, Coral Reefs 31:705–713

 Harrub, Brad, 2004a, The origin of gender and sexual reproduction, Creation TJ 18(1):120-127

 Harrub, Brad, 2004b, Evolutionary theories on gender and sexual reproduction, Creation TJ 18(1):97-104

 Hodgkin, Jonathan, 1986, Genetics 114:15-52.

 Hodin, Jason, 2006, The Evolution of metamorphosis, Integrative and Comparative Biology, 46[6]:719–742

 Leonard, Janet L., 2013, Integrative and Comparative Biology, 53[4]:671-688

 Normark, Benjamin B., 2014, The origins of novel genetic systems, Philosophical Transactions Royal Society B, 369:20130364

 Sarfati, Jonathan, 2011, https://creation.com/refuting-evolution-2-chapter-11-argument-evolution-of-sex

 Satoko, Narita, 2010, Sex determination in arthropods, Terrestrial Arthropod Reviews, 3:63–96

 Tree Of Sex, Vertebrates, 2015, http://bbrowse.biol.berkeley.edu/treeV2/styled/downloads/files/vertebrateTreeOfSex.csv

 Tree Of Sex, Invertebrates, 2015, http://bbrowse.biol.berkeley.edu/treeV2/styled/downloads-2/files/invert.data.csv

 Tree Of Sex, Plants, 2015, http://bbrowse.biol.berkeley.edu/treeV2/styled/downloads-3/files/plantsTreeOfSex.csv

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 Uniprot, 2015, Dacus, http://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/?query=%22Dacus+dorsalis%22&sort=score

 Uniprot, 2015, Drosophila, http://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/?query=%22drosophila+ananassae%22&sort=score

 

paul_nethercott@live.com.au

www.creationismonline.com